Heparosan-based biomaterials and coatings and methods of production and use thereof

ABSTRACT

The presently claimed and disclosed invention relates to biomaterial compositions that include an isolated heparosan polymer. The presently claimed and disclosed invention also relates to kits containing such biomaterial compositions, as well as to methods of producing such biomaterial compositions. The presently claimed and disclosed invention further relates to methods of using such biomaterial compositions as surface coatings for implants as well as for augmenting tissues.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims benefit under 35 U.S.C. 119(e) of U.S. Ser. No.60/921,296, filed Mar. 30, 2007.

This application is also a continuation-in-part of U.S. Ser. No.11/906,704, filed Oct. 3, 2007; which claims benefit under 35 U.S.C.119(e) of U.S. Ser. No. 60/849,034, filed Oct. 3, 2006.

Said application Ser. No. 11/906,704 is also a continuation-in-part ofU.S. Ser. No. 11/651,379, filed Jan. 9, 2007; which is a continuation ofU.S. Ser. No. 10/642,248, filed Aug. 15, 2003, now U.S. Pat. No.7,223,571, issued May 29, 2007; which claims benefit under 35 U.S.C.119(e) of provisional applications U.S. Ser. No. 60/404,356, filed Aug.16, 2002; U.S. Ser. No. 60/479,432, filed Jun. 18, 2003; and U.S. Ser.No. 60/491,362, filed Jul. 31, 2003.

Said U.S. Ser. No. 10/642,248 is also a continuation-in-part of U.S.Ser. No. 10/195,908, filed Jul. 15, 2002, now abandoned. Said U.S. Ser.No. 10/195,908 is a continuation-in-part of U.S. Ser. No. 10/142,143,filed May 8, 2002, now U.S. Pat. No. 7,307,159, issued Dec. 11, 2007;which claims benefit under 35 U.S.C. 119(e) of U.S. Ser. No. 60/289,554,filed May 8, 2001.

The contents of each of the above-referenced patents and patentapplications are hereby expressly incorporated herein in their entiretyby reference.

STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT

This application was supported in part by National Research GrantC2163601 from the National Science Foundation. The United StatesGovernment owns certain rights in and to this application by virtue ofthis funding.

BACKGROUND

1. Field of the Invention

The present invention relates to methodology for the production and usesof biomaterial compositions, and more particularly, to biomaterialcompositions comprising an isolated heparosan polymer and methods ofproduction and uses thereof.

2. Description of the Related Art

Polysaccharides are large carbohydrate molecules comprising from about25 sugar units to thousands of sugar units. Oligosaccharides are smallercarbohydrate molecules comprising less than about 25 sugar units.Animals, plants, fungi and bacteria produce an enormous variety ofpolysaccharide structures that are involved in numerous importantbiological functions such as structural elements, energy storage, andcellular interaction mediation. Often, the polysaccharide's biologicalfunction is due to the interaction of the polysaccharide with proteinssuch as receptors and growth factors. The glycosaminoglycan class ofpolysaccharides and oligosaccharides, which includes heparin,chondroitin, dermatan, keratan, and hyaluronic acid, plays major rolesin determining cellular behavior (e.g., migration, adhesion) as well asthe rate of cell proliferation in mammals. These polysaccharides andoligosaccharides are, therefore, essential for the correct formation andmaintenance of the organs of the human body.

Several species of pathogenic bacteria and fungi also take advantage ofthe polysaccharide's role in cellular communication. These pathogenicmicrobes form polysaccharide surface coatings or capsules that areidentical or chemically similar to host molecules. For instance, Group A& C Streptococcus and Type A Pasteurella multocida produce authentichyaluronic acid capsules, and other Pasteurella multocida (Type F and D)and pathogenic Escherichia coli (K4 and K5) are known to make capsulescomposed of polymers very similar to chondroitin and heparin. Thepathogenic microbes form the polysaccharide surface coatings or capsulesbecause such a coating is nonimmunogenic and protects the bacteria fromhost defenses, thereby providing the equivalent of molecular camouflage.

Enzymes alternatively called synthases, synthetases, or transferases,catalyze the polymerization of polysaccharides found in livingorganisms. Many of the known enzymes also polymerize activated sugarnucleotides. The most prevalent sugar donors contain UDP, but ADP, GDP,and CMP are also used depending on (1) the particular sugar to betransferred and (2) the organism. Many types of polysaccharides arefound at, or outside of, the cell surface. Accordingly, most of thesynthase activity is typically associated with either the plasmamembrane on the cell periphery or the Golgi apparatus membranes that areinvolved in secretion. In general, these membrane-bound synthaseproteins are difficult to manipulate by typical procedures, and only afew enzymes have been identified after biochemical purification.

A larger number of synthases have been cloned and sequenced at thenucleotide level using reverse genetic approaches in which the gene orthe complementary DNA (cDNA) was obtained before the protein wascharacterized. Despite this sequence information, the molecular detailsconcerning the three-dimensional native structures, the active sites,and the mechanisms of catalytic action of the polysaccharide synthases,in general, are very limited or absent. For example, the catalyticmechanism for glycogen synthesis is not yet known in detail even thoughthe enzyme was discovered decades ago. In another example, it is still amatter of debate whether most of the enzymes that produceheteropolysaccharides utilize one UDP-sugar binding site to transferboth precursors, or alternatively, if there exists two dedicated regionsfor each substrate.

As stated above, polysaccharides are the most abundant biomaterials onearth, yet many of the molecular details of their biosynthesis andfunction are not generally well known. Hyaluronic acid or HA is a linearpolysaccharide of the glycosaminoglycan class and is composed of up tothousands of β(1,4)GlcUA-β(1,3)GlcNAc repeats. In vertebrates, HA is amajor structural element of the extracellular matrix and plays roles inadhesion and recognition. HA has a high negative charge density andnumerous hydroxyl groups, therefore, the molecule assumes an extendedand hydrated conformation in solution. The viscoelastic properties ofcartilage and synovial fluid are, in part, the result of the physicalproperties of the HA polysaccharide. HA also interacts with proteinssuch as CD44, RHAMM, and fibrinogen thereby influencing many naturalprocesses such as angiogenesis, cancer, cell motility, wound healing,and cell adhesion.

There are numerous medical applications of HA. For example, HA has beenwidely used as a viscoelastic replacement for the vitreous humor of theeye in ophthalmic surgery during implantation of intraocular lenses incataract patients. HA injection directly into joints is also used toalleviate pain associated with arthritis. Chemically cross-linked gelsand films are also utilized to prevent deleterious adhesions afterabdominal surgery. Other researchers using other methods havedemonstrated that adsorbed HA coatings also improve the biocompatibilityof medical devices such as catheters and sensors by reducing fouling andtissue abrasion.

HA is also made by certain microbes that cause disease in humans andanimals. Some bacterial pathogens, namely Gram-negative Pasteurellamultocida Type A and Gram-positive Streptococcus Group A and C, producean extracellular HA capsule which protects the microbes from hostdefenses such as phagocytosis. Mutant bacteria that do not produce HAcapsules are 10²- and 10³-fold less virulent in comparison to theencapsulated strains. Furthermore, the Paramecium bursaria Chlorellavirus (PBCV-1) directs the algal host cells to produce a HA surfacecoating early in infection.

The various HA synthases (“HAS”), the enzymes that polymerize HA,utilize UDP-GlcUA and UDP-GlcNAc sugar nucleotide precursors in thepresence of a divalent Mn, Mg, or Co ion to polymerize long chains ofHA. The HA chains can be quite large (n=10² to 10⁴). In particular, theHASs are membrane proteins localized to the lipid bilayer at the cellsurface. During HA biosynthesis, the HA polymer is transported acrossthe bilayer into the extracellular space. In all HASs, a single speciesof polypeptide catalyzes the transfer of two distinct sugars. Incontrast, the vast majority of other known glycosyltransferases transferonly one monosaccharide.

Chondroitin is one of the most prevalent glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) invertebrates as well as part of the capsular polymer of Type F P.multocida, a minor fowl cholera pathogen. This bacterium producesunsulfated chondroitin (16), but animals possess sulfated chondroitinpolymers. The first chondroitin synthase from any source to bemolecularly cloned was the P. multocida pmCS (DeAngelis andPadgett-McCue, 2000). The pmCS contains 965 amino acid residues and isabout 90% identical to pmHAS. A soluble recombinant Escherichiacoli-derived pmCS¹⁻⁷⁰⁴ catalyzes the repetitive addition of sugars fromUDP-GalNAc and UDP-GlcUA to chondroitin oligosaccharide acceptors invitro.

Heparosan [N-acetylheparosan], (-GlcUA-β1,4-GlcNAc-α1,4-), is therepeating sugar backbone of the polysaccharide found in the capsule ofcertain pathogenic bacteria as well as the biosynthetic precursor ofheparin or heparan sulfate found in animals from hydra to vertebrates.In mammals, the sulfated forms bind to a variety of extremely importantpolypeptides including hemostasis factors (e.g., antithrombin III,thrombin), growth factors (e.g., EGF, VEGF), and chemokines (e.g., IL-8,platelet factor 4) as well as the adhesive proteins for viral pathogens(e.g., herpes, Dengue fever). Currently, heparin is extracted fromanimal tissue and used as an anticoagulant or antithrombotic drug. Inthe future, similar polymers and derivatives should also be useful forpharmacological intervention in a variety of pathologic conditionsincluding neoplasia and viral infection.

Several enzyme systems have been identified that synthesize heparosan.In bacteria, either a pair of two separate glycosyltransferases(Escherichia coli KfiA and KfiC) or a single glycosyltransferase(Pasteurella multocida PmHS1 or PmHS2; (30, 47)) have been shown topolymerize heparosan; the enzymes from both species are homologous atthe protein level. In vertebrates, a pair of enzymes, EXT 1 and EXT 2,that are not similar to the bacterial systems appear to be responsiblefor producing the repeating units of the polymer chain which is thensubsequently modified by sulfation and epimerization.

The heparosan synthases from P. multocida possess both a hexosamine anda glucuronic acid transfer site in the same polypeptide chain, as shownby mutagenesis studies (Kane, T. A. et. al, J. Biol. Chem. 2006), andare therefore referred to as “dual-action” or bifunctionalglycosyltransferases. These enzymes are complex because they employ bothan inverting and a retaining mechanism when transferring themonosaccharide from UDP precursors to the non-reducing terminus of agrowing chain. The two Pasteurella heparosan synthases, PmHS1 and PmHS2,are approximately 70% identical at the amino acid sequence level. Thetwo genes are found in different regions of the bacterial chromosome:PmHS1 (hssA) is associated with the prototypical Gram-negative Type IIcarbohydrate biosynthesis gene locus but PmHS2 (hssB) resides farremoved in an unspecialized region. As shown in the presently disclosedand claimed invention, these catalysts have useful catalytic propertiesthat may be harnessed by the hand of man.

Biomaterials (loosely defined as compounds or assemblies that are usedto augment or substitute for components of natural tissues or bodyparts) are and will continue to be integral components of tissueengineering and regenerative medicine approaches. Complex proceduresincluding transplants and stem cell therapies promise to enhance humanhealth, but limited supplies of donor organs/tissues and the steeplearning curves (as well as ethical debates) for pioneering approachesare obstacles. There is a growing demand for more routine applicationsof biomaterials, such as in reconstructive surgery, cosmetics, andmedical devices. Therefore, there is a need in the art for new andimproved biomaterials that may be used, for example but not by way oflimitation, for dermal filler applications and for surface coatings forimplanted devices.

Hyaluronan (HA), poly-L-lactic acid (poly[lactide]), calciumhydroxyapatite and collagen based products dominate the current marketfor biomaterials utilized in reconstructive surgery and cosmeticprocedures. However, these products have a number of undesirableproperties for which manufacturers and healthcare professionals areseeking improvements. These disadvantages include, but are not limitedto, limited lifetime, potential for immunogenicity and/or allergenicity,and non-natural appearance in aesthetic procedures. For enhancingbiocompatibility and durability of an implanted device, HA, heparin,bovine serum albumin, pyrolytic carbon, or lipid coatings are employedto enhance biocompatibility of stents, catheters, and other implantedmaterial devices. However, these products often cause fouling, clogging,or thrombus formation due to reactivity with the human body. Therefore,there is a need in the art for new and improved biomaterial compositionsthat overcome the disadvantages and defects of the prior art.

The presently claimed and disclosed invention overcomes thedisadvantages and defects of the prior art. The presently claimed anddisclosed invention is based on a biomaterial comprising heparosan, thenatural biosynthetic precursor of heparin and heparan sulfate. Thiscomposition has numerous characteristics that provide improvements andadvantages over existing products. While heparosan is very similar to HAand heparin, the molecule has greater stability within the body since itis not the natural final form of this sugar and therefore the body hasno degradation enzymes or binding proteins that lead to loss offunctionality. This property also reduces biofouling, infiltration,scarring and/or clotting. Heparosan is also more hydrophilic thansynthetic coatings such as plastics or carbon. Finally, aside frombacterial HA, most other current filler biomaterials are typicallyanimal-derived, which causes concern for side effects such as allergicreactions or stimulating granulation, and such side effects will not bea concern with the presently claimed and disclosed invention.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SEVERAL VIEWS OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 schematically illustrates a comparison of heparosan andhyaluronan (HA) structures.

FIG. 2 depicts a gel analysis demonstrating production of heparosanpolysaccharide. A 0.6% gel with Stain-all detection shows thePasteurella multocida heparosan (marked with arrow) in comparison to DNAladder (D=Bioline Hyper ladder) and a HA ladder (HA=Hylaose Hi and loLadders combined).

FIG. 3 depicts production of heparosan polysaccharide gels. P. multocidaheparosan was cross-linked with DVS in a conical tube, washed, and thegel was removed. The transparent gel retains its shape even when notsupported by liquid. Tighter or looser gels and viscous liquids are madeby altering the reaction stoichiometry and conditions.

FIG. 4 depicts agarose gel analysis demonstrating production ofpolysaccharide coatings utilizing a ¹²⁵I-HA probe. A radioactiveBolton-Hunter labeled HA tetramer primer was extended by a synchronizedpolymerization reaction with PmHAS to make a monodisperse HA probe.Stains-all dye (A) and the X-ray film (B) both show a single major ˜250kDa product (L, low and H, high sample loadings; S, HA sizestandards=310, 214, 110, 27 kDa from top to bottom, Hyalose LoLadder).The probe's gamma ray emissions are readily followed without destructivetesting of the coated surfaces facilitating quantitation.

FIG. 5 illustrates challenge of heparosan with human plasma. Thisagarose gel (0.9%, 1×TAE) with Stains-all detection shows that themolecular weight of the original heparosan (H) is unchanged even afterincubation with plasma (P) after overnight incubation at 37° C. (Std, HAlo-ladder, the 214 kDa band is marked with an arrow; Hyalose, LLC,Oklahoma City). Heparosan is a stable biomaterial.

FIG. 6 illustrates reactions and structures of Heparosan-based gels. A:a Heparosan-based gel with a structure similar to HYLAFORM® made withdivinyl sulfone. B: a Heparosan-based gel with a structure similar toRESTYLANE® made with 1,2-diethanediol diglycidyl ether.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

Before explaining at least one embodiment of the invention in detail byway of exemplary drawings, experimentation, results, and laboratoryprocedures, it is to be understood that the presently disclosed andclaimed invention is not limited in its application to the details ofconstruction and the arrangement of the components set forth in thefollowing description or illustrated in the drawings, experimentationand/or results. The presently disclosed and claimed invention is capableof other embodiments or of being practiced or carried out in variousways. As such, the language used herein is intended to be given thebroadest possible scope and meaning; and the embodiments are meant to beexemplary—not exhaustive. Also, it is to be understood that thephraseology and terminology employed herein is for the purpose ofdescription and should not be regarded as limiting.

Unless otherwise defined herein, scientific and technical terms used inconnection with the present invention shall have the meanings that arecommonly understood by those of ordinary skill in the art. Further,unless otherwise required by context, singular terms shall includepluralities and plural terms shall include the singular. Generally,nomenclatures utilized in connection with, and techniques of, cell andtissue culture, molecular biology, and protein and oligo- orpolynucleotide chemistry and hybridization described herein are thosewell known and commonly used in the art. Standard techniques are usedfor recombinant DNA, oligonucleotide synthesis, and tissue culture andtransformation (e.g., electroporation, lipofection). Enzymatic reactionsand purification techniques are performed according to manufacturer'sspecifications or as commonly accomplished in the art or as describedherein. The foregoing techniques and procedures are generally performedaccording to conventional methods well known in the art and as describedin various general and more specific references that are cited anddiscussed throughout the present specification. See e.g., Sambrook etal. Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual (2nd ed., Cold Spring HarborLaboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y. (1989) and Coligan et al.Current Protocols in Immunology (Current Protocols, Wiley Interscience(1994)), which are incorporated herein in their entirety by reference.The nomenclatures utilized in connection with, and the laboratoryprocedures and techniques of, analytical chemistry, synthetic organicchemistry, and medicinal and pharmaceutical chemistry described hereinare those well known and commonly used in the art. Standard techniquesare used for chemical syntheses, chemical analyses, pharmaceuticalpreparation, formulation, and delivery, and treatment of patients.

Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) are linear polysaccharides composed ofrepeating disaccharide units containing a derivative of an amino sugar(either glucosamine or galactosamine). Hyaluronan [HA], chondroitin, andheparan sulfate/heparin contain a uronic acid as the other component ofthe disaccharide repeat while keratan contains a galactose. The GAGs aresummarized in Table I.

TABLE I Post-Polymerization Modifications Polymer Disaccharide RepeatVertebrates Bacteria Hyaluronan β3GlcNAc β4GlcUA None none Chondroitinβ3GalNAc β4GlcUA O-sulfated/epimerized none Heparin/ β4GlcNAc α4GlcUAO,N-sulfated/epimerized none heparin Keratan β4GlcNAc β3Gal O-sulfatednot reported

An unnatural glycosaminoglycan (unnatural GAG) would be a composition ofmatter not normally found in known living vertebrates, animals ormicrobes; different arrangements or structures of chemical groups areadded by the hand of man.

Vertebrates may contain all four types of GAGs, but the polysaccharidechain is often further modified after sugar polymerization. One or moremodifications including O-sulfation of certain hydroxyls, deacetylationand subsequent N-sulfation, or epimerization of glucuronic acid toiduronic acid are found in most GAGs except HA. An amazing variety ofdistinct structures have been reported for chondroitin sulfate andheparan sulfate/heparin even within a single polymer chain. A few cleverpathogenic microbes also produce unmodified GAG chains; the bacteria useextracellular polysaccharide coatings as molecular camouflage to avoidhost defenses. The chondroitin and heparan sulfate/heparin chains invertebrates are initially synthesized by elongation of axylose-containing linkage tetrasaccharide attached to a variety ofproteins. Keratan is either O-linked or N-linked to certain proteinsdepending on the particular molecule. HA and all of the known bacterialGAGs are not part of the classification of proteins known asglycoproteins. All GAGs except HA are found covalently linked to a coreprotein, and such combination is referred to as a proteoglycan.Glycoproteins are usually much smaller than proteoglycans and onlycontain from 1-60% carbohydrate by weight in the form of numerousrelatively short, branched oligosaccharide chains, whereas aproteoglycan can contain as much as 95% carbohydrate by weight. The coreprotein in a proteoglycan is also usually a glycoprotein, thereforeusually contains other oligosaccharide chains besides the GAGs.

GAGs and their derivatives are currently used in the medical field asophthalmic and viscoelastic supplements, adhesion surgical aids toprevent post-operative adhesions, catheter and device coatings, andanticoagulants. Other current or promising future applications includeanti-cancer medications, tissue engineering matrices, immune and neuralcell modulators, anti-virals, proliferation modulators, and drugtargeting agents.

Complex carbohydrates, such as GAGs, are information rich molecules. Amajor purpose of the sugars that make up GAGs is to allow communicationbetween cells and extracellular components of multicellular organisms.Typically, certain proteins bind to particular sugar chains in a veryselective fashion. A protein may simply adhere to the sugar, but quiteoften the protein's intrinsic activity may be altered and/or the proteintransmits a signal to the cell to modulate its behavior. For example, inthe blood coagulation cascade, heparin binding to inhibitory proteinshelps shuts down the clotting response. In another case, HA binds tocells via the CD44 receptor that stimulates the cells to migrate and toproliferate. Even though long GAG polymers (i.e., >10² Da) are foundnaturally in the body, typically the protein's binding site interactswith a stretch of 4 to 10 monosaccharides. Therefore, oligosaccharidescan be used to either (a) substitute for the polymer, or (b) to inhibitthe polymer's action depending on the particular system.

HA polysaccharide plays structural roles in the eye, skin, and jointsynovium. Large HA polymers (˜10⁶ Da) also stimulate cell motility andproliferation. On the other hand, shorter HA polymers (˜10⁴ Da) oftenhave the opposite effect. HA-oligosaccharides composed of 10 to 14sugars [HA₁₀₋₁₄] have promise for inhibition of cancer cell growth andmetastasis. In an in vivo assay, mice injected with various invasive andvirulent tumor cell lines (melanoma, glioma, carcinomas from lung,breast and ovary) develop a number of large tumors and die within weeks.Treatment with HA oligosaccharides greatly reduced the number and thesize of tumors. Metastasis, the escape of cancer cells throughout thebody, is one of the biggest fears of both the ailing patient and thephysician. HA or HA-like oligosaccharides appear to serve as asupplemental treatment to inhibit cancer growth and metatasis.

The preliminary mode of action of the HA-oligosaccharide sugars isthought to be mediated by binding or interacting with one of severalimportant HA-binding proteins (probably CD44 or RHAM) in the mammalianbody. One proposed scenario for the anticancer action ofHA-oligosaccharides is that multiple CD44 protein molecules in a cancercell can bind simultaneously to a long HA polymer. This multivalent HAbinding causes CD44 activation (perhaps mediated by dimerization or areceptor patching event) that triggers cancer cell activation andmigration. However, if the cancer cell is flooded with smallHA-oligosaccharides, then each CD44 molecule individually binds adifferent HA molecule in a monovalent manner such that nodimerization/patching event occurs. Thus no activation signal istransmitted to the cell. Currently, it is believed that the optimalHA-sugar size is 10 to 14 sugars. Although this size may be based moreupon the size of HA currently available for testing rather thanbiological functionality—i.e., now that HA molecules and HA-likederivatives <10 sugars are available according to the methodologies ofthe present invention, the optimal HA size or oligosaccharidecomposition may be found to be different.

It has also been shown that treatment with certain anti-CD44 antibodiesor CD44-antisense nucleic acid prevents the growth and metastasis ofcancer cells in a fashion similar to HA-oligosaccharides; in comparisonto the sugars, however, these protein-based and nucleic acid-basedreagents are somewhat difficult to deliver in the body and/or may havelong-term negative effects. A very desirable attribute ofHA-oligosaccharides for therapeutics is that these sugar molecules arenatural by-products that can occur in small amounts in the healthy humanbody during the degradation of HA polymer; no untoward innate toxicity,antigenicity, or allergenic concerns are obvious.

Other emerging areas for the potential therapeutic use of HAoligosaccharides are the stimulation of blood vessel formation and thestimulation of dendritic cell maturation. Enhancement of wound-healingand resupplying cardiac oxygenation may be additional applications thatharness the ability of HA oligosaccharides to cause endothelial cells toform tubes and sprout new vessels. Dendritic cells possess adjuvantactivity in stimulating specific CD4 and CD8 T cell responses.Therefore, dendritic cells are targets in vaccine development strategiesfor the prevention and treatment of infections, allograft reactions,allergic and autoimmune diseases, and cancer.

Heparin interacts with many proteins in the body, but two extremelyinteresting classes are coagulation cascade proteins and growth factors.Antithrombin III [ATIII] and certain other hemostasis proteins are100,000-fold more potent inhibitors of blood clotting when complexedwith heparin. Indeed, heparin is so potent it must be used in a hospitalsetting and requires careful monitoring in order to avoid hemorrhage.Newer, processed lower molecular weight forms of heparin are safer, butthis material is still a complex mixture. It has been shown that aparticular pentasaccharide (5 sugars long) found in heparin isresponsible for the ATIII-anticoagulant effect. But since heparin is avery heterogeneous polymer, it is difficult to isolate thepentasaccharide (5 sugars long) in a pure state. The pentasaccharide canalso be prepared in a conventional chemical synthesis involving ˜50 to60 steps. However, altering the synthesis or preparing an assortment ofanalogs in parallel is not always feasible—either chemically orfinancially.

Many growth factors, including VEGF (vascular endothelial growthfactor), HBEGF (heparin-binding epidermal growth factor), and FGF(fibroblast growth factor), bind to cells by interacting simultaneouslywith the growth factor receptor and a cell-surface heparin proteoglycan;without the heparin moiety, the potency of the growth factor plummets.Cell proliferation is modulated in part by heparin; therefore, diseasessuch as cancer and atherosclerosis are potential targets. Abnormal orunwanted proliferation would be curtailed if the growth factor wasprevented from stimulating target disease-state cells by interactingwith a heparin-like oligosaccharide analog instead of a surface-boundreceptor. Alternatively, in certain cases, the heparin oligosaccharidesalone have been shown to have stimulatory effects.

Chondroitin is the most abundant GAG in the human body, but all of itsspecific biological roles are not yet clear. Phenomenon such as neuralcell outgrowth appears to be modulated by chondroitin. Both stimulatoryand inhibitory effects have been noted depending on the chondroitin formand the cell type. Therefore, chondroitin or similar molecules are ofutility in re-wiring synaptic connections after degenerative diseases(e.g., Alzheimer's) or paralytic trauma. The epimerized form ofchondroitin (GlcUA converted to the C5 isomer, iduronic acid or IdoUA),dermatan, selectively inhibits certain coagulation proteins such asheparin cofactor II. By modulating this protein in the coagulationpathway instead of ATIII, dermatan appears to allow for a larger safetymargin than heparin treatment for reduction of thrombi or clots thatprovoke strokes and heart attacks.

In the patent applications referenced and incorporated herein, severalpractical catalysts from Pasteurella bacteria that allow for thesynthesis of the three most important human GAGs (i.e., the three knownacidic GAGs) are described and enabled (e.g. HA, chondroitin, andheparin).

All of the known HA, chondroitin and heparosan/heparan sulfate/heparinglycosyltransferase enzymes that synthesize the alternating sugar repeatbackbones in microbes and in vertebrates utilize UDP-sugar precursorsand divalent metal cofactors (e.g., magnesium, cobalt, and/or manganeseion) near neutral pH according to the overall reaction:

nUDP-GlcUA+nUDP-HexNAc2nUDP+[GlcUA-HexNAc]_(n)

where HexNAc=GlcNAc or GalNAc. Depending on the specific GAG and theparticular organism or tissue examined, and the degree ofpolymerization, n, ranges from about 25 to about 10,000. Smallermolecules may be made in vitro, as desired. If the GAG is polymerized bya single polypeptide, the enzyme is called a synthase or co-polymerase.

As outlined in and incorporated by reference in the “Cross-Reference”section of this application hereinabove, the inventor has previouslydiscovered four new dual-action enzyme catalysts from distinct isolatesof the Gram-negative bacterium Pasteurella multocida using variousmolecular biology strategies. P. multocida infects fowl, swine, andcattle as well as many wildlife species. The enzymes are: a HA synthase,or PmHAS (see U.S. Ser. No. 10/217,613, filed Aug. 12, 2002, the entirecontents of which are expressly incorporated herein by reference); achondroitin synthase, or PmCS (see U.S. Ser. No. 09/842,484, filed Apr.25, 2002, the entire contents of which are expressly incorporated hereinby reference); and two heparosan synthases, or PmHS1 and PmHS2 (see U.S.Ser. No. 10/142,143, filed May 8, 2002, the entire contents of which areexpressly incorporated herein by reference).

Most membrane proteins are relatively difficult to study due to theirinsolubility in aqueous solution, and the native HSs are no exception.However, the inventor has demonstrated in the prior application,incorporated herein above, that full-length, native sequence PmHS1 orPmHS2 can be converted into higher yield, soluble proteins that arepurifiable by the addition of fusion protein partners, such as, but notlimited to, maltose-binding protein (MBP).

The present invention encompasses methods of producing a variety ofunique biocompatible molecules and coatings based on polysaccharides.Polysaccharides, especially those of the glycosaminoglycan class, servenumerous roles in the body as structural elements and signalingmolecules. The biomaterial compositions of the presently disclosed andclaimed invention may be utilized, for example but not by way oflimitation, for augmenting tissues and for coating surfaces of implants.The polysaccharide coatings of the present invention are useful forintegrating a foreign object within a surrounding tissue matrix. Forexample, a device's artificial components could be masked by thebiocompatible coating to reduce immunoreactivity or inflammation.

The present invention is related to a biomaterial composition thatincludes an isolated heparosan polymer. The isolated heparosan polymeris biocompatible with a mammalian patient and is represented by thestructure (-GlcUA-beta-1,4-GlcNAc-alpha-1,4-)n, wherein n is a positiveinteger greater than or equal to 1. In one embodiment, n may be greaterthan 10, while in other embodiments, n may be about 1,000. Thebiomaterial composition is substantially not susceptible tohyaluronidases and thereby is not substantially degraded in vivo. Inaddition, the biomaterial composition may be recombinantly produced asdescribed in detail herein, or the biomaterial composition may beisolated and purified from natural sources by any isolation/purificationmethods known in the art.

The heparosan polymer of the biomaterial composition may be linear orcross-linked. The biomaterial composition of the present invention maybe administered to a patient by any means known in the art; for example,but not by way of limitation, the biomaterial composition may beinjectable and/or implantable. In addition, the biomaterial compositionmay be in a gel or semi-solid state, a suspension of particles, or thebiomaterial composition may be in a liquid form.

Alternatively, the heparosan polymer of the biomaterial composition maybe attached to a substrate. When attached to a substrate, the isolatedheparosan polymer may be covalently (via a chemical bond) ornon-covalently (via weak bonds) attached to the substrate. Examples ofsubstrates that may be utilized in accordance with the present inventioninclude, but are not limited to, silica, silicon, semiconductors, glass,polymers, organic compounds, inorganic compounds, metals andcombinations thereof. When the substrate is a metal, the metal mayinclude, but is not limited to, gold, copper, stainless steel, nickel,aluminum, titanium, thermosensitive alloys and combinations thereof.

The present invention also comprises biomaterial compositions comprisinga cross-linked gel comprising isolated heparosan and at least onecross-linking agent. The cross-linking agent may be any cross-linkingagent known in the art; specific examples of cross-linking agents thatmay be utilized in accordance with the present invention include, butare not limited to, aldehydes, epoxides, polyaziridyl compounds,glycidyl ethers, divinyl sulfones, and combinations and derivativesthereof.

Any of the biomaterial compositions of the presently disclosed andclaimed invention may be a moisturizing biomaterial that protects fromdehydration; alternatively, any of the biomaterial compositions of thepresent invention may be a lubricating biomaterial.

Another aspect of the presently disclosed and claimed invention isrelated to kits for in vivo administration of the biomaterialcompositions described herein above to a mammalian patient.

The presently disclosed and claimed invention also relates to methodsfor providing a coating on a surface of a synthetic implant. In suchmethods, a synthetic implant and the biomaterial composition describedherein above are provided. The biomaterial composition is disposed ontoat least a portion of the surface of the synthetic implant and allowedto form a coating on the surface of the implant.

The presently disclosed and claimed invention is also related to methodsof augmenting tissue in a patient. In such methods, the biomaterialcomposition described herein above is provided, and an effective amountthereof is administered to the mammalian patient. The biomaterialcomposition may be administered to the patient by any method known inthe art, such as but not limited to, injection and/or implantation. Wheninjected, the biomaterial composition may be in a liquid state or asuspension of particles, whereas when implanted, the biomaterialcomposition may be in a gel or semi-solid state, or may be attached to asubstrate.

The presently disclosed and claimed invention also comprises biomaterialcompositions comprising a cross-linked gel comprising isolated heparosanand at least one cross-linking agent. The cross-linking agent may be anycross-linking agent known in the art; specific examples of cross-linkingagents that may be utilized in accordance with the present inventioninclude, but are not limited to, aldehydes, epoxides, polyaziridylcompounds, glycidyl ethers, divinyl sulfones, and combinations andderivatives thereof.

The presently disclosed and claimed invention also relates to methods ofrepairing voids in tissues of mammals, comprising injecting/implantingthe biomaterial composition described herein above into said voids.

The presently disclosed and claimed invention also relates to methods ofcreating voids or viscus in tissues of mammals, comprisinginjecting/implanting the biomaterial composition described herein aboveinto a tissue or a tissue engineering construct to create said voids orviscus.

The presently disclosed and claimed invention also relates to methods ofreparative surgery or plastic surgery, comprising using the biomaterialcompositions described herein above as filling material.

The presently disclosed and claimed invention further relates to methodsof dermal augmentation and/or treatment of skin deficiency in a mammal,comprising injecting and/or implanting a biomaterial composition asdescribed herein above into said mammal. The biomaterial composition isbiocompatible, swellable, hydrophilic and substantially non-toxic, andthe biomaterial composition swells upon contact with physiologicalfluids at the injection/implantation site.

The dermal augmentation method of the presently disclosed and claimedinvention is especially suitable for the treatment of skin contourdeficiencies, which are often caused by aging, environmental exposure,weight loss, child bearing, injury, surgery, in addition to diseasessuch as acne and cancer. Suitable for the treatment by the presentinvention's method are contour deficiencies such as frown lines, worrylines, wrinkles, crow's feet, marionette lines, stretch marks, andinternal and external scars resulted from injury, wound, bite, surgery,or accident.

“Dermal augmentation” in the context of the presently disclosed andclaimed invention refers to any change of the natural state of amammal's skin and related areas due to external acts. The areas that maybe changed by dermal augmentation include, but not limited to,epidermis, dermis, subcutaneous layer, fat, arrector pill muscle, hairshaft, sweat pore, and sebaceous gland.

In addition, the presently disclosed and claimed invention also relatesto methods of medical or prophylactic treatment of a mammal, whereinsuch methods comprise administration of the biomaterial compositionsdescribed herein to a mammal in need of such a treatment.

Further, the presently disclosed and claimed invention also relates tomethods of treatment or prophylaxis of tissue augmentation in a mammal,comprising administering a medical or prophylactic compositioncomprising a polysaccharide gel composition comprising the biomaterialcomposition described herein.

The presently disclosed and claimed invention is further related to adelivery system for a substance having biological or pharmacologicalactivity, said system comprising a molecular cage formed of across-linked gel of heparosan or a mixed cross-linked gel of heparosanand at least one other hydrophilic polymer co-polymerizable therewithand having dispersed therein a substance having biological orpharmacological activity and which is capable of being diffusedtherefrom in a controlled manner.

The biomaterials of the presently disclosed and claimed invention may beutilized in any methods of utilizing biomaterials known in the art. Forexample but not by way of limitation, the biomaterial compositions ofthe presently disclosed and claimed invention may be utilized in any ofthe methods of utilizing other known biomaterials that are described inU.S. Pat. No. U.S. Pat. No. 4,582,865, issued to Balazs et al. on Apr.15, 1986; 4,636,524, issued to Balazs et al. on Jan. 13, 1987; U.S. Pat.No. 4,713,448, issued to Balazs et al. on Dec. 15, 1987; U.S. Pat. No.5,137,875, issued to Tsununaga et al. on Aug. 11, 1992; U.S. Pat. No.5,827,937, issued to Ang on Oct. 27, 1998; U.S. Pat. No. 6,436,424,issued to Vogel et al. on Aug. 20, 2002; U.S. Pat. No. 6,685,963, issuedto Taupin et al. on Feb. 3, 2004; and U.S. Pat. No. 7,060,287, issued toHubbard et al. on Jun. 13, 2006. The entire contents of such patents arehereby expressly incorporated herein by reference, and therefore any ofthe methods described therein, when utilized with the novel biomaterialcompositions of the presently claimed and disclosed invention, also fallwithin the scope of the present invention.

Other specific examples of uses for the biomaterial compositions of thepresently disclosed and claimed invention include, but are not limitedto, (a) a persistent lubricating coating on a surface, such as but notlimited to, surgical devices; (b) a long lasting moisturizer; (c) aviscoelastic supplement for joint maladies; and (d) a non-thrombotic,non-occluding blood conduit (such as but not limited to, a stent orartificial vessel, etc.). In addition, the biomaterial compositions ofthe present invention may be utilized in tissue engineering to form aviscus or vessel duct or lumen by using the biomaterial compositions ofthe presently disclosed and claimed invention as a three-dimensionalspace maker; in this instance, the surrounding cells will not bind tothe biomaterial compositions of the present invention, thereby makingsuch biomaterial compositions well suited for this technology.

In addition, the presently disclosed and claimed invention furtherincludes methods of doing business by producing the glycosaminoglycanpolymers by the methods described herein above and selling anddelivering such glycosaminoglycan polymers to a customer or providingsuch glycosaminoglycan polymers to a patient.

As used herein, the term “heparosan” will be understood to refer to thenatural biosynthetic precursor of heparin and heparin sulfate. The sugarpolymer heparosan is an unsulfated, unepimerized heparin molecule, andmay also be referred to as “N-acetyl heparosan”.

The term “tissue” as used herein will be understood to refer to agrouping of cells within an organism that are similarly characterised bytheir structure and function.

The term “biomaterial” as used herein will be understood to refer to anynondrug material that can be used to treat, enhance, protect, or replaceany tissue, organ, or function in an organism. The term “biomaterial”also refers to biologically derived material that is used for itsstructural rather than its biological properties, for example but not byway of limitation, to the use of collagen, the protein found in bone andconnective tissues, as a cosmetic ingredient, or to the use ofcarbohydrates modified with biotechnological processes as lubricants forbiomedical applications or as bulking agents in food manufacture. A“biomaterial” is any material, natural or man-made, that comprises wholeor part of a living structure or biomedical device which performs,auguments, protects, or replaces a natural function and that iscompatible with the body.

As used herein, when the term “isolated” is used in reference to amolecule, the term means that the molecule has been removed from itsnative environment. For example, a polynucleotide or a polypeptidenaturally present in a living animal is not “isolated,” but the samepolynucleotide or polypeptide separated from the coexisting materials ofits natural state is “isolated.” Further, recombinant DNA moleculescontained in a vector are considered isolated for the purposes of thepresent invention. Isolated RNA molecules include in vivo or in vitroRNA replication products of DNA and RNA molecules. Isolated nucleic acidmolecules further include synthetically produced molecules.Additionally, vector molecules contained in recombinant host cells arealso isolated. Overall, this also applies to carbohydrates in general.Thus, not all “isolated” molecules need be “purified.”

As used herein, when the term “purified” is used in reference to amolecule, it means that the concentration of the molecule being purifiedhas been increased relative to molecules associated with it in itsnatural environment. Naturally associated molecules include proteins,nucleic acids, lipids and sugars but generally do not include water,buffers, and reagents added to maintain the integrity or facilitate thepurification of the molecule being purified.

As used herein, the term “substantially purified” refers to a compoundthat is removed from its natural environment and is at least 60% free,preferably 75% free, and most preferably 90% free from other componentswith which it is naturally associated.

As used herein, “substantially pure” means an object species is thepredominant species present (i.e., on a molar basis it is more abundantthan any other individual species in the composition), and preferably asubstantially purified fraction is a composition wherein the objectspecies comprises at least about 50 percent (on a molar basis) of allmacromolecular species present. Generally, a substantially purecomposition will comprise more than about 80 percent of allmacromolecular species present in the composition, such as more thanabout 85%, 90%, 95%, and 99%. In one embodiment, the object species ispurified to essential homogeneity (contaminant species cannot bedetected in the composition by conventional detection methods) whereinthe composition consists essentially of a single macromolecular species.

As used herein, the term “substrate” will be understood to refer to anysurface of which a coating may be disposed Examples of substrates thatmay be utilized in accordance with the present invention include, butare not limited to, silica, silicon, glass, polymers, organic compounds,inorganic compounds, metals and combinations thereof. When the substrateis a metal, the metal may include, but is not limited to, gold, copper,stainless steel, nickel, aluminum, titanium, thermosensitive alloys andcombinations thereof.

The terms “gel” and “semi-solid” are used interchangeably herein andwill be understood to include a colloidal system, with the semblance ofa solid, in which a solid is dispersed in a liquid; the compound mayhave a finite yield stress. The term “gel” also refers to a jelly likematerial formed by the coagulation of a colloidal liquid. Many gels havea fibrous matrix and fluid filled interstices: gels are viscoelasticrather than simply viscous and can resist some mechanical stress withoutdeformation. When pressure is applied to gels or semi-solids, theyconform to the shape at which the pressure is applied.

The term “hydrogel” is utilized herein to describe a network of polymerchains that are water-insoluble, sometimes found as a colloidal gel inwhich water is the dispersion medium. Hydrogels are very absorbentnatural or synthetic polymers, and may contain over 99% water. Hydrogelsalso possess a degree of flexibility very similar to natural tissue, dueto their significant water content.

In addition, peptides and/or larger biologically active substances canbe enclosed in hydrogels, thereby forming a sustained releasecomposition.

As used herein, the term “effective amount” refers to an amount of abiomaterial composition or conjugate or derivative thereof sufficient toexhibit a detectable therapeutic or prophylactic effect without undueadverse side effects (such as toxicity, irritation and allergicresponse) commensurate with a reasonable benefit/risk ratio when used inthe manner of the invention. The effective amount for a subject willdepend upon the type of subject, the subject's size and health, thenature and severity of the condition to be treated, the method ofadministration, the duration of treatment, the nature of concurrenttherapy (if any), the specific formulations employed, and the like.Thus, it is not possible to specify an exact effective amount inadvance. However, the effective amount for a given situation can bedetermined by one of ordinary skill in the art using routineexperimentation based on the information provided herein.

The term “substantially monodisperse in size” as used herein will beunderstood to refer to defined glycoasminoglycan polymers that have avery narrow size distribution. For example, substantially monodisperseglycosaminoglycan polymers having a molecular weight in a range of fromabout 3.5 kDa to about 0.5 MDa will have a polydispersity value (i.e.,Mw/Mn, where Mw is the average molecular weight and Mn is the numberaverage molecular weight) in a range of from about 1.0 to about 1.1, andpreferably in a range from about 1.0 to about 1.05. In yet anotherexample, substantially monodisperse glycosaminoglycan polymers having amolecular weight in a range of from about 0.5 MDa to about 4.5 MDa willhave a polydispersity value in a range of from about 1.0 to about 1.5,and preferably in a range from about 1.0 to about 1.2.

As used herein, the term “nucleic acid segment” and “DNA segment” areused interchangeably and refer to a DNA molecule which has been isolatedfree of total genomic DNA of a particular species. Therefore, a“purified” DNA or nucleic acid segment as used herein, refers to a DNAsegment which contains a Heparosan Synthase (HS) coding sequence yet isisolated away from, or purified free from, unrelated genomic DNA, forexample, total Pasteurella multocida. Included within the term “DNAsegment”, are DNA segments and smaller fragments of such segments, andalso recombinant vectors, including, for example, plasmids, cosmids,phage, viruses, and the like.

In one embodiment of the presently disclosed and claimed invention, thebiomaterial compositions of the present invention may be produced usingrecombinant glycosaminoglycan transferases as described in theinventor's prior patent applications that have previously beenincorporated herein. The recombinant glycosaminglycan transferasesutilized in accordance with the present invention may be selected fromthe group consisting of: a recombinant heparosan synthase having anamino acid sequence as set forth in at least one of SEQ ID NOS: 2, 4,and 6-8; a recombinant heparosan synthase encoded by the nucleotidesequence of at least one of SEQ ID NOS: 1, 3 and 5; a recombinantheparosan synthase encoded by a nucleotide sequence capable ofhybridizing to a complement of the nucleotide sequence of at least oneof SEQ ID NOS: 1, 3 and 5 under hybridization conditions comprisinghybridization at a temperature of 68° C. in 5× SSC/5×Denhardt'ssolution/1.0% SDS, followed with washing in 3×SSC at 42° C.; arecombinant heparosan synthase encoded by a nucleotide sequence capableof hybridizing to a complement of a nucleotide sequence encoding anamino acid sequence as set forth in at least one of SEQ ID NOS:2, 4 and6-8 under hybridization conditions comprising hybridization at atemperature of 68° C. in 5×SSC/5× Denhardt's solution/1.0% SDS, followedwith washing in 3×SSC at 42° C.; a recombinant heparosan synthaseencoded by a nucleotide sequence capable of hybridizing to a complementof the nucleotide sequence of at least one of SEQ ID NOS: 1, 3 and 5under hybridization conditions comprising hybridization at a temperatureof 30° C. in 5×SSC, 5× Denhardt's reagent, 30% formamide for about 20hours followed by washing twice in 2×SSC, 0.1% SDS at about 30° C. forabout 15 min followed by 0.5×SSC, 0.1% SDS at about 30° C. for about 30minutes; and a recombinant heparosan synthase encoded by a nucleotidesequence capable of hybridizing to a complement of a nucleotide sequenceencoding an amino acid sequence as set forth in of at least one of SEQID NOS: 2, 4 and 6-8 under hybridization conditions comprisinghybridization at a temperature of 30° C. in 5×SSC, 5× Denhardts reagent,30% formamide for about 20 hours followed by washing twice in 2×SSC,0.1% SDS at about 30° C. for about 15 min followed by 0.5×SSC, 0.1% SDSat about 30° C. for about 30 minutes. Recombinant heparosan synthasesthat fall within the scope of the description above and may be utilizedin accordance with the present invention have been described in detailin the inventor's issued patent U.S. Pat. No. 7,307,159, issued Dec. 11,2007; and the inventor's patent applications U.S. Ser. No. 11/906,704,filed Oct. 3, 2007; and U.S. Ser. No. 10/814,752, filed Mar. 31, 2004;the entire contents of each of which are hereby expressly incorporatedherein by reference.

The use of truncated glycosaminoglycan transferase genes to produce thebiomaterial compositions of the presently disclosed and claimedinvention also fall within the definition of preferred sequences as setforth above. For instance, the removal of the last 50 residues or thefirst 77 residues of PmHS1 (SEQ ID NOS: 7 and 8, respectively) does notinactivate its catalytic function (Kane et al., 2006). Those of ordinaryskill in the art would appreciate that simple amino acid removal fromeither end of the GAG synthase sequence can be accomplished. Thetruncated versions of the sequence simply have to be checked foractivity in order to determine if such a truncated sequence is stillcapable of producing GAGs. The other GAG synthases disclosed and claimedherein are also amenable to truncation or alteration with preservationof activity, and the uses of such truncated or alternated GAG synthasesalso fall within the scope of the present invention.

The recombinant glycosaminoglycan transferases utilized in accordancewith the present invention also encompass sequences essentially as setforth in SEQ ID NOS:1-8. The term “a sequence essentially as set forthin SEQ ID NO:X means that the sequence substantially corresponds to aportion of SEQ ID NO:X and has relatively few amino acids or codonsencoding amino acids which are not identical to, or a biologicallyfunctional equivalent of, the amino acids or codons encoding amino acidsof SEQ ID NO:X. The term “biologically functional equivalent” is wellunderstood in the art and is further defined in detail herein, as a genehaving a sequence essentially as set forth in SEQ ID NO:X, and that isassociated with the ability of prokaryotes to produce HA or a heparosanpolymer in vitro or in vivo. In the above examples X refers to eitherSEQ ID NO:1-8 or any additional sequences set forth herein, such as thetruncated or mutated versions of pmHS1 that are contained generally inSEQ ID NOS:7-8.

The art is replete with examples of practitioner's ability to makestructural changes to a nucleic acid segment (i.e. encoding conserved orsemi-conserved amino acid substitutions) and still preserve itsenzymatic or functional activity when expressed. See for special exampleof literature attesting to such: (1) Risler et al. Amino AcidSubstitutions in Structurally Related Proteins. A Pattern RecognitionApproach. J. Mol. Biol. 204:1019-1029 (1988) [ . . . according to theobserved exchangeability of amino acid side chains, only four groupscould be delineated; (i) Ile and Val; (ii) Leu and Met, (iii) Lys, Arg,and Gln, and (iv) Tyr and Phe.]; (2) Niefind et al. Amino AcidSimilarity Coefficients for Protein Modeling and Sequence AlignmentDerived from Main-Chain Folding Anoles. J. Mol. Biol. 219:481-497 (1991)[similarity parameters allow amino acid substitutions to be designed];and (3) Overington et al. Environment-Specific Amino Acid SubstitutionTables Tertiary Templates and Prediction of Protein Folds, ProteinScience 1:216-226 (1992) [Analysis of the pattern of observedsubstitutions as a function of local environment shows that there aredistinct patterns . . . . Compatible changes can be made.]

It is widely recognized that a pair of distinct enzymes with even 30, 50or 70% identity or similarity at the active site (of functional regions)thereof can possess the same catalytic activity. As most of the proteinsequence is a scaffold for the active site, it is not required that allregions of the enzymes be exactly the same between functional enzymehomologs or analogs. In addition, some extra (non-catalytic) sequencesmay also be present, thus lowering the total protein similarity levels.Thus, functional regions (and not entire sequences) should be the basisfor similarity comparisons between two enzymes.

These references and countless others, indicate that one of ordinaryskill in the art, given a nucleic acid sequence or an amino acid, couldmake substitutions and changes to the nucleic acid sequence withoutchanging its functionality (specific examples of such changes are givenhereinafter and are generally set forth in SEQ ID NOS:7-8). Also, asubstituted nucleic acid segment may be highly identical and retain itsenzymatic activity with regard to its unadulterated parent, and yetstill fail to hybridize thereto. Additionally, the present applicationdiscloses 4 enzymes and numerous mutants of these enzymes that stillretain at least 50% of the enzymatic activity of the unmutated parentenzyme—i.e., ½ of the dual action transferase activity of theunadulterated parent. As such, variations of the sequences and enzymesthat fall within the above-defined functional limitations have beendisclosed in the applications incorporated by reference. One of ordinaryskill in the art, given the present specification and the disclosures ofthe incorporated-by-reference parent applications, would be able toidentify, isolate, create, and test DNA sequences and/or enzymes thatproduce natural or chimeric or hybrid GAG molecules. As such, thepresently claimed and disclosed invention should not be regarded asbeing solely limited to the use of the specific sequences disclosedand/or incorporated by reference herein.

The presently disclosed and claimed invention may utilize nucleic acidsegments encoding an enzymatically active HS from P. multocida—pmHS1and/or PmHS2. One of ordinary skill in the art would appreciate thatsubstitutions can be made to the pmHS1 or PmHS2 nucleic acid segmentslisted in SEQ ID NO:1, 3 and 5, respectively, without deviating outsidethe scope and claims of the present invention. Indeed, such changes havebeen made and are described hereinafter with respect to the mutantsproduced. Standardized and accepted functionally equivalent amino acidsubstitutions are presented in Table II. In addition, other analogous orhomologous enzymes that are functionally equivalent to the disclosedsynthase sequences would also be appreciated by those skilled in the artto be similarly useful in the methods of the present invention, that is,a new method to control precisely the size distribution ofpolysaccharides, namely glycosaminoglycans.

TABLE II Conservative and Semi-Conservative Amino Acid GroupSubstitutions NonPolar R Groups Alanine, Valine, Leucine, Isoleucine,Proline, Methionine, Phenylalanine, Tryptophan Polar, but uncharged, RGroups Glycine, Serine, Threonine, Cysteine, Asparagine, GlutamineNegatively Charged R Groups Aspartic Acid, Glutamic Acid PositivelyCharged R Groups Lysine, Arginine, Histidine

Allowing for the degeneracy of the genetic code as well as conserved andsemi-conserved substitutions, sequences which have between about 40% andabout 99%; or more preferably, between about 60% and about 99%; or morepreferably, between about 70% and about 99%; or more preferably, betweenabout 80% and about 99%; or even more preferably, between about 90% andabout 99% identity to the nucleotides of at least one of SEQ ID NO: 1, 3and 5 will be sequences which are “essentially as set forth in at leastone of SEQ ID NO: 1, 3 and 5. Sequences which are essentially the sameas those set forth in at least one of SEQ ID NO: 1, 3 and 5 may also befunctionally defined as sequences which are capable of hybridizing to anucleic acid segment containing the complement of at least one of SEQ IDNO: 1, 3 and 5 under standard stringent hybridization conditions,“moderately stringent hybridization conditions,” “less stringenthybridization conditions,” or “low stringency hybridization conditions.”Suitable standard or less stringent hybridization conditions will bewell known to those of skill in the art and are clearly set forthhereinbelow. In a preferred embodiment, standard stringent hybridizationconditions or less stringent hybridization conditions are utilized.

The terms “standard stringent hybridization conditions,” “moderatelystringent conditions,” and less stringent hybridization conditions or“low stringency hybridization conditions” are used herein, describethose conditions under which substantially complementary nucleic acidsegments will form standard Watson-Crick base-pairing and thus“hybridize” to one another. A number of factors are known that determinethe specificity of binding or hybridization, such as pH; temperature;salt concentration; the presence of agents, such as formamide anddimethyl sulfoxide; the length of the segments that are hybridizing; andthe like. There are various protocols for standard hybridizationexperiments. Depending on the relative similarity of the target DNA andthe probe or query DNA, then the hybridization is performed understringent, moderate, or under low or less stringent conditions.

The hybridizing portion of the hybridizing nucleic acids is typically atleast about 14 nucleotides in length, and preferably between about 14and about 100 nucleotides in length. The hybridizing portion of thehybridizing nucleic acid is at least about 60%, e.g., at least about 80%or at least about 90%, identical to a portion or all of a nucleic acidsequence encoding a heparin/heparosan synthase or its complement, suchas SEQ ID NO:1, 3 or 5 or the complement thereof. Hybridization of theoligonucleotide probe to a nucleic acid sample typically is performedunder standard or stringent hybridization conditions. Nucleic acidduplex or hybrid stability is expressed as the melting temperature orT_(m), which is the temperature at which a probe nucleic acid sequencedissociates from a target DNA. This melting temperature is used todefine the required stringency conditions. If sequences are to beidentified that are related and substantially identical to the probe,rather than identical, then it is useful to first establish the lowesttemperature at which only homologous hybridization occurs with aparticular concentration of salt (e.g., SSC, SSPE, or HPB). Then,assuming that 1% mismatching results in a 1° C. decrease in the T_(m),the temperature of the final wash in the hybridization reaction isreduced accordingly (for example, if sequences having >95% identity withthe probe are sought, the final wash temperature is decreased by about 5C). In practice, the change in T_(m) can be between about 0.5° C. andabout 1.5° C. per 1% mismatch. Examples of standard stringenthybridization conditions include hybridizing at about 68° C. in 5×SSC/5×Denhardt's solution/1.0% SDS, followed with washing in 0.2×SSC/0.1% SDSat room temperature or hybridizing in 1.8×HPB at about 30° C. to about45° C. followed by washing a 0.2-0.5×HPB at about 45° C. Moderatelystringent conditions include hybridizing as described above in 5×SSC5×Denhardt's solution 1% SDS washing in 3×SSC at 42° C. The parameters ofsalt concentration and temperature can be varied to achieve the optimallevel of identity between the probe and the target nucleic acid.Additional guidance regarding such conditions is readily available inthe art, for example, by Sambrook et al., 1989, Molecular Cloning, ALaboratory Manual, (Cold Spring Harbor Press, N.Y.); and Ausubel et al.(eds.), 1995, Current Protocols in Molecular Biology, (John Wiley &Sons, N.Y.). Several examples of low stringency protocols include: (A)hybridizing in 5×SSC, 5× Denhardts reagent, 30% formamide at about 30°C. for about 20 hours followed by washing twice in 2×SSC, 0.1% SDS atabout 30° C. for about 15 min followed by 0.5×SSC, 0.1% SDS at about 30°C. for about 30 min (FEMS Microbiology Letters, 2000, vol. 193, p.99-103); (B) hybridizing in 5×SSC at about 45° C. overnight followed bywashing with 2×SSC, then by 0.7×SSC at about 55° C. (J. ViologicalMethods, 1990, vol. 30, p. 141-150); or (C) hybridizing in 1.8×HPB atabout 30° C. to about 45° C.; followed by washing in 1×HPB at 23° C.

The DNA segments that may be utilized to produce the biomaterialcompositions of the presently disclosed and claimed invention encompassDNA segments encoding biologically functional equivalent HS proteins andpeptides. Such sequences may arise as a consequence of codon redundancyand functional equivalency which are known to occur naturally withinnucleic acid sequences and the proteins thus encoded. Alternatively,functionally equivalent proteins or peptides may be created via theapplication of recombinant DNA technology, in which changes in theprotein structure may be engineered, based on considerations of theproperties of the amino acids being exchanged. Changes designed by manmay be introduced through the application of site-directed mutagenesistechniques, e.g., to introduce improvements to the enzyme activity or toantigenicity of the HS protein or to test HS mutants in order to examineHS activity at the molecular level or to produce HS mutants havingchanged or novel enzymatic activity and/or sugar substrate specificity.

Heparosan, a sugar polymer that is the natural biosynthetic precursor ofheparin and heparan sulfate, has numerous characteristics that indicatethat this material exhibits enhanced performance in a variety of medicalapplications or medical devices. In comparison to HA and heparin, twovery structurally similar polymers used in many current applications inseveral large markets, heparosan is more stable in the body, as nonaturally occurring enzymes degrade heparosan, and therefore thebiomaterial compositions of the present invention should have longerlifetimes compared to presently used biomaterials. In addition,heparosan interacts with fewer proteins (thus less fouling) and cells(thus less infiltration, scarring, or clotting) when compared toexisting biomaterials.

In comparison to synthetic plastics or carbon, the naturalhydrophilicity (aka water-loving) characteristics of heparosan alsoenhance tissue compatibility. Animal-derived proteins (e.g., collagen,bovine serum albumin) and calcium hydroxyapatite often have sideeffects, including but not limited to, eliciting an allergic responseand/or stimulating granulation (5). On the other hand, even certainpathogenic bacteria use heparosan to hide in the body since this polymeris non-immunogenic (8-10). The biomaterial compositions of the presentlydisclosed and claimed invention produced from a non-animal source alsopromise to be free of adventitious agents (e.g., vertebrate viruses,prions) that could potentially contaminate animal- or human-derivedsources.

Certain carbohydrates play roles in forming and maintaining thestructures of multicellular organisms in addition to more familiar rolesas nutrients for energy. Glycosaminoglycans [GAGs], long linearpolysaccharides consisting of disaccharide repeats that contain an aminosugar, are well known to be essential in vertebrates (9, 11-15). The GAGstructures possess many negative groups and are replete with hydroxylgroups, therefore these sugars have a high capacity to adsorb water andions. Heparin/heparan (backbone [β4GlcUA-α4GlcNAc]_(n)), chondroitin(backbone [β4GlcUA-β3GalNAc]_(n)), and hyaluronan (HA; backbone[β4GlcUA-β3GlcNAc]_(n)) are the three most prevalent GAGs in humans.Depending on the tissue and cell type, the GAGs are structural,adhesion, and/or signaling elements. A few clever microbes also produceextracellular polysaccharide coatings, called capsules, composed of GAGchains that serve as virulence factors (9, 10). The capsule is thoughtto assist in the evasion of host defenses such as phagocytosis andcomplement. As the microbial polysaccharide is identical or very similarto the host GAG, the antibody response is either very limited ornon-existent.

Commercially, the GAG polymers are extracted from either animal tissuesor bacterial cultures. The current market for GAGs is ˜$4-8 billion andgrowing as more medical applications emerge. For example, heparin is themost used drug (an anticoagulant) in hospitals.

The production of the final heparinoid species found in animals requiresmultiple processing steps in vivo (12). The overall biosynthetic pathwayfor heparin/heparin sulfate in humans and other vertebrates is:

Common name of Step Repeat Unit polymer 1. polymerization of backbone(GlcNAc-GlcUA)_(n) heparosan 2. N-deacetylation and (GlcNSO₄-GlcUA)_(n)N-sulfo- N-sulfation heparosan 3. epimerization of acid unit*(GlcNSO₄-IdoUA)_(n) — 4. further O-sulfation of (GlcNSO₄[OSO₄]- heparansulfate, sugar-units* IdoUA-[OSO₄])_(n) heparin *note - epimerizationand sulfation levels vary in tissues and developmental state, andbetween species.

In humans, heparosan only exists transiently, serving as a precursor tothe more highly modified final products of heparan sulfate and heparin.In contrast, the bacterial strains set forth herein produce heparosan astheir final product (16). Due to the less complex makeup of bacterialcells and to the relative ease with which their growth and expressioncan be modulated, harvesting a polymer from microbes is much easier,more scalable, and less expensive than extracting from animal tissues.

Dermal fillers serve as soft tissue replacements or augmentation agents(5, 6). The need for a dermal filler may arise from aging (loss of HAand elastin), trauma (loss of tissue), acne (severe pitting), and/oratrophy (certain wasting diseases including lipoatrophy). Threeimportant characteristics that dermal fillers must possess include a)space-filling ability, b) maintenance of hydration, and c)biocompatibility (5). Currently, polysaccharides, proteins, plastics,and ceramics have been used as biomaterials in dermal fillers. Withrespect to aesthetic appearance and ease of implantation, softerinjectable gels have better attributes; thus, polysaccharides andproteins are widely used. In addition to therapeutic uses, cosmeticapplications are becoming more widespread. Alternatives to dermal fillertreatment are the use of (i) plastic surgery (tightening the skin), (ii)nerve killing agents such as BOTOX® (relax muscles), and (iii) the useof autologous fat. Compared to dermal fillers, these alternatives aremore invasive and/or leave the patient with an unnatural appearance (5,6). For victims of trauma, scarring, or severe disease, an aim of thetherapy is to instill more self-confidence and better disposition; thiseffect should not be discounted, as a patient's state of mind isimportant for overall healing.

A major goal of bioengineering is the design of implanted artificialdevices to repair or to monitor the human body. High-strength polymers,durable alloys, and versatile semiconductors have many properties thatmake these materials desirable for bioengineering tasks. However, thehuman body has a wide range of defenses and responses that evolved toprevent infections and to remove foreign matter that hinders theutilization of modern man-made substances (17, 18). Improving thebiocompatibility of these materials will remove a significant bottleneckin the advancement of bioengineering.

A leading example of a medical need for improved surface coatings liesin cardiovascular disease. Damage from this disease is a very prevalentand expensive problem; the patient's system is oxygen- andnutrient-starved due to poor blood flow. The availability of bloodvessel grafts from transplants (either autologous or donor) is limitedas well as expensive. Therefore, the ability to craft new artificialvessels is a goal, but will take more time to perfect due to the complexengineering and biological requirements. Another current, moreapproachable therapeutic intervention employs stents, artificial devicesthat prop open the inner cavity of a patient's blood vessel. As summatedby Jordan & Chaikof, “The development of a clinically durablesmall-diameter vascular graft as well as permanently implantablebiosensors and artificial organ systems that interface with blood,including the artificial heart, kidney, liver, and lung, remain limitedby surface-induced thrombotic responses” (7). Thus, to advance thistechnology further, thromboresistant surface coatings are needed thatinhibit: (i) protein and cell adsorption, (ii) thrombin and fibrinformation, and (iii) platelet activation and aggregation.

Artificial plastics (poly[lactide] in SCULPTRA® (Sanofi-Aventis) orpoly[methylmethacrylate] in ARTECOLL® (Artes medical, Inc., San Diego,Calif.), ceramics (calcium hydroxyapatite in RADIESSE® (Bioform Medical,Inc., San Mateo, Calif.)) or pure carbon have utility for manytherapeutic applications (1, 5, 7, 18), but in many respects, theirchemical and physical properties are not as optimal as polysaccharidesfor the targeted goals of dermal fillers or surface coatings. The mostcritical issues are lack of good wettability (due to poor interactionwith water) and/or hardness (leading to an unnatural feel orbrittleness). The presently claimed and disclosed invention is relatedto the use of heparosan to replace and supplant useful sugar polymersthat are hydrophilic (water loving) and may be prepared in a soft form.

In addition to HA and heparin, other polysaccharides such as dextran([α6Glc]_(n)), cellulose ([β4Glc]_(n)), or chitosan ([β4GlcN]_(n)) havemany useful properties, but since they are not naturally anionic(negatively charged), these polymers do not mimic the naturalextracellular matrix or blood vessel surfaces. Cellulose and dextran canbe chemically transformed into charged polymers that help increase theirbiocompatibility and improve their general physicochemical properties,but harsh conditions are required leading to batch-to-batch variabilityand quality issues. On the other hand, GAGs, the natural polymers, haveintrinsic negative charges.

HA and heparin have been employed as biomaterial coatings for vascularprosthesis and stents (artificial blood vessels and supports), as wellas coatings on intraocular lenses and soft-tissue prostheses (7, 22).The rationale is to prevent blood clotting, enhance fouling resistance,and prevent post-surgery adhesion (when organs stick together in anundesirable fashion). The biomaterial compositions of the presentinvention should also be suitable as a coating, as described in greaterdetail herein after.

A key advantage with heparosan is that it has increased biostability inthe extracellular matrix when compared to other GAGs. As with mostcompounds synthesized in the body, new molecules are made, and afterserving their purpose, are broken down into smaller constituents forrecycling. Heparin and heparan sulfate are eventually degraded andturned over by a single enzyme known as heparanase (23, 24).Experimental challenge of heparosan and N-sulfo-heparosan withheparanase, however, shows that these polymers lacking O-sulfation arenot sensitive to enzyme action in vitro (25, 26). These findingsdemonstrate that heparosan is not fragmented enzymatically in the body.Overall, this indicates that heparosan is a very stable biomaterial.

Another glycosaminoglycan, hyaluronan [HA], is very abundant in thehuman body and is currently employed as a biomaterial for manyapplications (2, 5, 6, 27, 28). However, a family of degradativeenzymes, called hyaluronidases, attacks HA in the body during normalturnover (29) in a fashion similar to the activity of heparanase.Heparosan, although it possesses the same sugar unit composition, hasdifferent intersugar linkages that are not cleavable by hyaluronidases(30) (FIG. 1). Thus heparosan is expected to be more long-lived than HA,a currently useful biomaterial, in the human body. For dermal fillers,this feature translates into a reduction in the number of injectionsthat need to be performed (currently ˜2-3 per year). For the HA-basedproducts with the largest market share, the polysaccharide chains arecross-linked, which hinders hyaluronidase digestion (6), but cleavagestill occurs; such cleavage weakens and finally destroys the gelnetwork. The devices of the presently claimed and disclosed invention,which have longer lasting coatings, should not need to beremoved/replaced as quickly and/or should have lowerfailure/complication rates when compared to existing biomaterialdevices.

Heparosan polymer is predicted to be much more stable in theextracellular compartment than HA as described above. However, ifheparosan fragments are generated (by reactive oxygen species) and theninternalized into the lysosome, these chains will be degraded byresident beta-glucosidase and beta-hexosaminidase enzymes (which removeone sugar at a time from chain termini) like heparin or HA (31).Therefore, the heparosan polymer is biodegradable and not permanent andthus should not cause a lysosomal storage problem. A key advantage withheparosan is that it has increased biostability in the extracellularmatrix when compared to other GAGs.

Heparosan is a transiently existing sugar polymer in mammals. Generallyspeaking, molecules that normally exist in the body are regarded as“self” and therefore not subjected to attack by antibodies, phagocytes,or complement system. This fact is employed by certain pathogenicbacteria that coat themselves with molecules identical or very similarto host molecules. Two different types of bacteria, Pasteurellamultocida Type D (16) and Escherichia coli K5 (32), both produceheparosan coatings that are important for camouflage and hiding fromhost defenses (8, 32). Therefore, heparosan is predicted to berelatively invisible to the frontline human defenses.

The normal roles of heparin/heparan sulfate in vertebrates include, butare not limited to, binding coagulation factors (inhibiting bloodclotting) and growth factors (signaling cells to proliferate ordifferentiate) (33). The key structures of heparin/heparan sulfate thatare recognized by these factors include a variety of O-sulfationpatterns and the presence of iduronic acid [IdoUA]; in general, polymerswithout these modifications do not stimulate clotting or cell growth(33). Therefore, heparosan-based gels or coatings should not provokeunwanted clotting or cellular growth/modulation.

Heparan sulfate also interacts with extracellular matrix moleculesincluding collagen (33), but heparosan should not interact stronglyunder normal physiological conditions. Collagen deposition is part ofthe normal wound repair process; thus, heparosan gels and coatingsshould avoid triggering scarring. Other proteins that do bindheparin/heparan sulfate and several cell types with other proteinreceptors for heparan sulfate/heparin should not adhere to heparosan.Certain chemotactic factors that bind heparin are not known to bindheparosan (33). Therefore, cells should not seek out and infiltrateheparosan-based materials, thereby compromising their integrity orchanging their properties.

Hyaluronan [HA] is normally made as a large molecular weightpolysaccharide (n=10³⁻⁴ sugar units), but over time (˜day to weeks) HAis degraded into smaller oligosaccharides (n=4-20 units) (29, 34). Theselatter fragments have two biological activities (35-37) that may havedirect impacts on the body implanted with a HA-based biomaterial. First,these fragments are angiogenic, and thereby cause new blood vessels tosprout. Second, the fragments appear to constitute a “danger signal”where the body is alerted to potential pathogen attack or damage. Inboth cases, these normal repair systems will re-model or alter thetissues near the implanted HA-derived biomaterial or HA-coated surface,which may be detrimental. Both the angiogenesis and the “danger signal”events are initiated by HA oligosaccharides binding to cell surfacereceptors; CD44 and Toll-like receptors, respectively, appear to be thesignaling proteins (38, 39). Heparosan, which is structurally similar toHA, does not bind to CD44 (preliminary results, DeAngelis laboratory).Certain lymphocytes (white blood cells) with surface CD44 that interactwith HA also should not recognize heparosan; it is thought that CD44helps the cell move from the blood into tissues (extravasion). Heparosanshould not serve as such a docking site, thereby limiting lymphocyteinfiltration of the implanted biomaterial or surrounding area.

Overall, heparosan is more biologically inert than HA or heparin, bothpopular and highly profitable biomaterials. For dermal fillers andreconstructive surgery applications, the space-filling,moisture-retaining characteristics of the biomaterial are desiredwithout triggering subsequent events such as angiogenesis, inflammationor infiltration cascades. Similarly, heparosan-coated surfaces shouldfreely interact with water, but proteins and cells should not bindstrongly to the polymer.

Some medical applications may require a bioactive material orfunctionalized surface rather than the inert properties of heparosan.Heparosan can still potentially serve as the scaffold containing orreleasing these bioactive molecules.

Currently, several approved biomaterials (including collagen and someHA) have limitations due to animal-derived or human-derived components(5, 6). For example, Baxter had to recall batches of porcine heparin inearly 2008. Adventitious agents such as viruses or prions may not becompletely removed during processing. Bovine collagen is potentially thelargest concern in light of ‘mad cow disease’, but human adventitiousagents may also be transferred from the tissue bank material or celllines. In addition, hitherto unrecognized or emerging pathogens, as wellas very low pathogen levels (i.e. due to “false-negative” or erroneoustests), are always a possibility with vertebrate-derived materials.Therefore, the FDA provided a guidance statement in 2004 that onlysynthetic or plant-based materials should be used in futuretherapeutics, if possible. Fortunately, the bacterially derivedheparosan biomaterial compositions of the present invention cannotpossess prions, HIV or hepatitis virus, etc., since these contaminantsare only associated with vertebrates.

In addition to containing potential adventitious agents, animal proteinsare usually recognized by the human immune system because their aminoacid sequences are not identical to man. Some human individuals aresensitive and thus cannot use the cow-derived collagen or the chickencomb-derived HA (5). Currently, skin tests are used to screen forhypersensitivity or allergenicity. However, certain individuals may alsobecome sensitive or reactive to materials after implantation; in effect,such a person will have been vaccinated with a foreign material. Thiseffect may be more problematic if the same material is given in severalapplications, and a slight response escalates after the immune system isboosted multiple times. With dermal filler procedures, multipleapplications are often standard. If a detrimental side effect occursonce a gel is implanted, it is virtually impossible to remove alloffending material.

Even if human collagen is employed, after extraction and processing, itsdenatured or unfolded state may potentially stimulate some connectivetissue diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupuserythematosus, polymyositis, or dermatomyositis (5). On the other hand,heparosan should not create an autoimmune response against connectivetissue proteins.

Human-derived material is used for two products, CYMETRA™ (acellulardermal tissue derivative; LifeCell Corp., Branchburg, N.J.) and collagenallograft (fibroblast culture extracts). In addition to possible safetyconcerns, these materials are limited (derived from tissue bankmaterial) and/or expensive (human cell cultured in vitro). On the otherhand, heparosan polysaccharide from bacterial fermentation can be anabundant, renewable resource.

The chemical and physical structures shared by HA, heparin and heparosanresult in their ability to bind large amounts of water and ions toexpand tissues and interact well with aqueous fluids of the body. Theseare major beneficial attributes for a dermal filler or a coating.

In summary, the key features of the biomaterial compositions of thepresent invention that provide improved performance for use in dermalfillers for reconstructive surgery and in non-fouling, non-cloggingmedical devices, compared to existing HA or heparin products, include,but are not limited to: (a) resistance to enzyme-mediated attack; (b)lack of clotting factor, chemoattractant, and growth factor bindingsites; (c) lack of known cell signaling or attachment domains; (d) lackof vertebrate-derived proteins and adventitious agents; and (e) lack ofprotein-based allergens or immunogens.

Examples are provided hereinbelow. However, the present disclosed andclaimed invention is to be understood to not be limited in itsapplication to the specific experimentation, results and laboratoryprocedures. Rather, the Examples are simply provided as one of variousembodiments and are meant to be exemplary, not exhaustive.

EXAMPLES

Production of Heparosan Polysaccharide. Certain Pasteurella multocidabacteria make an extracellular coating composed of unsulfated heparosanpolymer that is readily harvested from the culture media. There is onlyone other known source of unsulfated, underivatized heparosan:Escherichia coli K5. A major benefit of the Pasteurella heparosan overE. coli K5 heparosan and mammal heparin is that it has a highermolecular weight, ˜200-300 kDa (16); therefore, gels formed of thePasteurella heparosan should be easier to produce.

Small-scale shake flasks of the Pasteurella microbe were grown insynthetic media for 20-36 hours. Centrifugation was used to remove thecells. The spent media was solvent extracted, then anionexchange-purified. The resulting heparosan is substantially free ofprotein (as judged by Bradford assays and SDS-PAGE gels with Coomassiestaining) and DNA (as judged by agarose gels with ethidium bromidestaining; see FIG. 2) contamination. This material (˜0.2-0.5 grams/literyield) formed a fluffy, salt-free, white powder suitable for chemicalcross-linking or coating reactions.

Production of Polysaccharide Gels. Cross-linking agents, such as but notlimited to, divinyl sulfone (DVS) or di-epoxides, were used to make avariety of GAG gels including a small amount of a prototype heparosangel (FIG. 3). The gel is stable in vitro, maintains its physical shape,but is soft as desired.

Production of Polysaccharide Coatings. Radioactive ¹²⁵I-labeled HA (FIG.4), a polymer with the same chemical reactivity and molecular weight(˜300 kDa) as the heparosan produced above, was incubated withepoxy-activated steel or silicone (obtained from AeonClad Coatings, LLC)and then washed extensively. The radioactivity of the materials waschecked in a gamma counter.

As shown in Table III, the radioactive sugar was coupled to bothsurfaces; in contrast, parallel control surfaces without the epoxycoating did not bind the sugar substantially. The coatings wererelatively stable for at least 4 weeks (the length of the initial study)after incubation in saline (multiple washes over time).

Stability of Biomaterial Compositions in Human Plasma. FIG. 5illustrates that the biomaterial compositions of the present inventionare not degraded in human blood. Fresh blood was obtained from a fingerstick of a healthy human male, diluted 1:1 with PBS (Phosphate-bufferedsaline, pH 7.4), and the cells were removed by gentle centrifugation(300×g, 2 min). The plasma in the supernatant was mixed with a heparosansolution in PBS (0.7 mg/ml polymer) in a 1:2 vol/vol ratio and thenincubated overnight at 37° C. A 10 microliter sample was subjected togel electrophoresis. As controls, plasma alone or heparosan alone weretested in parallel. As evidenced by FIG. 5, the molecular weight of theoriginal heparosan (H) is unchanged even after incubation with plasma(P) after overnight incubation. Therefore, the heparosan biomaterialcompositions of the present invention are stable biomaterials.

TABLE III Addition of HA (a heparosan polymer proxy) to Steel orSilicone and Stability Testing Coating Buffer 0.1 M Na 1.0M Na phospateborate ¹²⁵I-HA (dpm) Material pH 8 pH 9 time 0 4 weeks SteelEpoxy-activated + 970 540 No activation + 95 32 Epoxy-activated + 1030540 No activation + 100 46 Silicone Epoxy-activated + 1330 600 Noactivation + 220 85 Epoxy-activated + 900 430 No activation + 170 60

Discussion of Examples.

Many P. multocida isolates produce GAG or GAG-like molecules (8). CarterType D P. multocida, the major causative agent of fowl cholera andpasteurellosis, makes a heparosan capsule. A single polypeptide, theheparosan synthase, PmHS1, polymerizes the sugar chain by transferringboth GlcUA and GlcNAc (30). In E. coli K5, at least two enzymes, KfiA,the alpha-GlcNAc transferase, and KfiC, the beta-GlcUA-transferase, (andperhaps KfiB, a protein of unknown function) work in concert to form thedisaccharide repeat (40).

P. multocida Type D (or an improved recombinant version) should be amore economical and useful source of heparosan than E. coli K5 forseveral reasons. The former microbe has a higher intrinsic biosyntheticcapacity for capsule production. The Pasteurella capsule radius oftenexceeds the cell diameter when observed by light microscopy of IndiaInk-prepared cells. On the other hand, visualization of the meager E.coli K5 capsule often requires electron microscopy. From a safetystandpoint, E. coli K5 is a human pathogen, while Type D Pasteurella hasonly been reported to cause disease in animals. Furthermore, withrespect to recombinant gene manipulation to create better productionhosts, the benefits of handling only a single gene encoding either PmHS1or PmHS2, dual action synthases, in comparison to utilizing KfiA, KfiB,& KfiC, are obvious.

In some aspects of the presently disclosed and claimed invention, theheparosan of the biomaterial compositions of the present invention willbe processed prior to use in the body to mold its characteristics.Solutions of heparosan polymer are viscous, but will eventually diffuseand dilute from the original site of injection or placement; thus, amore immobilized form may be desired, such as but not limited to, a gelor a particulate suspension. In this form, the material may becovalently cross-linked by chemical means to provide a long-lastingform. In contrast, non-covalent ionic bridge complexes (e.g., withdivalent metal cations, etc) will weaken and fall apart over a muchshorter time scale; thus, such formulations are not as ideal as thecross-linked materials; however, such materials are still encompassed bythe present invention.

Numerous gel-forming chemistries, from exotic to crude, are possible.Two independent types of cross-linkers have been investigated herein: a)divinyl sulfone and b) diepoxide. Several key factors considered inchoosing these two cross-linkers included (a) the ability to form stablegels in one chemical step with a single reagent, and (b) the previoussuccess of these reagents with HA resulted in two widely employed,FDA-approved gels (41).

The size distribution of HA used for existing gels on the market rangesin size from ˜800-1,000 kDa for bacterial HA to ˜2,000-4,000 kDa forchicken-derived HA. HYLAFORM® (Genzyme) is made with dimethyl sulfonewhile RESTYLANE® (QMed) employs the diepoxide, 1,2-diethanedioldiglycidyl ether (FIG. 6). Both HA-based products have very desirablephysical properties; thus, heparosan with a similar structure shouldalso be useful. The heparosan polymer derived from Pasteurella multocidaType D has a molecular mass (˜200-300 kDa) that should be sufficient forcross-linking at achievable concentrations. On the other hand, thesmaller polymer from E. coli K5 is only ˜30-80 kDa and thus moredifficult to effectively cross-link at readily obtainable sugarconcentrations.

The selected cross-linkers have the ability to react simultaneously withtwo hydroxyl groups of the sugar polymers, thus allowing multiple chainsto be covalently connected. A vast network of cross-linked chains iscreated, thereby forming a sugar gel.

The presently claimed and disclosed invention demonstrates thatheparosan is a better biomaterial for certain approachable medicalapplications. A comparison of the characteristics and properties of thepresent invention to existing technologies is listed in Table IV.

The presently claimed and disclosed invention includes a method to applya heparosan polysaccharide surface coating that will shield medicaldevice components from the detrimental responses of the body to foreignmatter. Interestingly, there is a natural prototype of such surfacecoating: certain pathogenic bacteria utilize an external shell of thesame polysaccharide as camouflage to grow relatively unhindered in thebody during infection (8). Therefore, the presently claimed anddisclosed invention provides a biocompatible interface to bridge the gapbetween artificial substances and living flesh and blood.

Targets that may be coated by the present invention include, but are notlimited to, surgical steel, widely used for stents, and medical-gradesilicone rubber, widely used for piping fluids and blood. The propertiesand characteristics of the present invention and existing medical devicesurface coatings are outlined in Table V.

Plasma deposition is a proven process to deposit thin films directlyfrom a gas state onto a solid substrate. Plasma deposition methodstypically balance the benefits of extended coating times with thenegatives of surface ablation that occurs with extended plasma exposure.Most plasma deposition methods use a continuous discharge to create theplasma state. However, extended exposure can begin to erode not only thenewly formed coating but also the underlying material. AeonClad'sadvanced single-step, solvent-free, pulsed process eliminates surfaceablation by rapidly creating a protective polymer layer upon which anynumber of films can be deposited (42, 43). Therefore, the presentinvention includes methods of providing a coating of the heparosanbiomaterial on the surface of a substrate utilizing such plasmadeposition methods.

TABLE IV Comparison of Heparosan and Existing Surgical Biomaterials forDermal Filler Applications. Associated Barrier of Current PresentInvention's Key Variable Project Target Current Practice ProcedureInnovative Approaches Coating Stability Long lasting HA, heparin,Degraded by body's Use heparosan, a polymer (weeks-months). Bovine serumnatural enzymes that is not enzymatically albumin (BSA) digested inhuman body. Carbon (C) — Lipids (L) Shed from surface Wettability Freelyinteracts BSA, HA, heparin, L — Use water-loving heparosan with water. CHydrophobic polymer. Fouling, Clotting Surface does not HA, heparinBlood cells & Use relatively biologically bind proteins or clottingfactors bind inert heparosan polymer. cells. BSA, C, L — Disease Zerorisk of HA [chicken], CG Potential risk Use non-animal, bacteriallyTransmission animal virus or HA [bacterial], PP, — derived heparosan.prions. CHP

TABLE V Comparison of Heparosan and Existing Biomaterials for SurfaceCoating Applications. Associated Barrier of Current Present Invention'sInnovative Key Variable Project Target Current Practice ProcedureApproaches Semi-stable Gel Injectable, Soft, Hyaluronan Gel (HA) Tooshort lifetime Use heparosan, a polymer that is Formation long-lasting(>12-24 Collagen Gel (CG) not enzymatically digested in months), but notPlastic Particles (PP) Grainy appearance & human body, and is not apermanent gel. too long lifetime coarse, hard material. CaHydroxyapatite Grainy appearance Particles (CHP) too long lifetime, &cannot inject easily Immunogenicity, No antibody HA [bacterial], PP, CHP— Use heparosan polymer that Allergenicity generation. HA [chicken],Immune or allergic looks ‘human’ and does not CG [bovine > human]response trigger immune system. Infiltration Reduce cell HA Proteins &cells bind Use heparosan polymer that adhesion and/or PP, CHP — lacksknown adhesion domains signaling. CG Cells bind or chemotactic signals.Disease Zero risk of human HA [chicken], CG Potential risk Usenon-animal, bacterially Transmission or animal virus HA [bacterial], PP,CHP — derived heparosan. and/or prions. X-ray Imaging No opaque or HA,CG — Use X-ray-transparent Compatible marked areas. PP, CHP Obscuresimages heparosan. Abundant Renewable & not CG [human] Limited tissuebank Use heparosan made via Resource overly expensive to supply or cellculture bacterial fermentation. produce. derived (costly) HA, CHP, PP,CHP —

Materials and Methods

Heparosan Production and Testing: P. multocida Type D cells were grownin synthetic media at 37° C. in shake flasks for ˜24 hrs. Spent culturemedium (the liquid part of culture after microbial cells are removed)was harvested (by centrifugation at 10,000×g, 20 min) and deproteinized(solvent extraction with chloroform) (16). The very large anionicheparosan polymer (˜200-300 kDa) was isolated via ultrafiltration (30kDa molecular weight cut-off; Amicon) and ion exchange chromatography(NaCl gradient on Q-Sepharose; Pharmacia). Overall, the cells (with thevast majority of contaminants) and the small molecules (which wouldconsume cross links or activated surface) were readily removed. Anyendotoxin was removed by passage through an immobilized polymyxin column(Pierce); the material was then tested with a Limulus amoebacyte-basedassay (www.Cambrex.com) to assure that the heparosan contains <0.05endotoxin units/mg solid (based on USP guidelines for medical devices).

The yield and molecular weight size distribution of the heparosan in thespent media was checked by a) carbazole assays for uronic acid (44) andb) agarose gel electrophoresis (1×TAE buffer, 0.8-1.5% agarose) followedby Stains-All detection (45). The carbazole assay is aspectrophotometric chemical assay that measures the amount of uronicacid in the sample via production of a pink color; every other sugar inthe heparosan chain is a glucuronic acid. The heparosan polymer size wasdetermined by comparison to monodisperse HA size standards (HALo-Ladder, Hyalose, LLC) run on gels. The detection limit of thecarbazole and the gel assays is ˜5-15 micrograms of polymer. It isestimated that ˜3-5 grams of heparosan polymer are required for gel andcoating preparation.

Gel Synthesis Overview. The porosity or strength of apolysaccharide-based gel may be modulated by altering (a) the polymerconcentrations and/or (b) the ratio of polymer and cross-linker. Lesspolymer per unit volume (i.e. low concentration) will have a looserstructure. At a given sugar polymer concentration, more cross-linksresult in stronger gels with small pores while less cross-links resultin softer gels with large pores. Therefore, a parallel series ofreactions with varying amounts of cross-linker and/or heparosan are madeand analyzed. The initial starting range for reaction conditions is10-100 mg/ml heparosan cross-linked with 50:1 to 5:1 w/wpolymer/crosslinker ratios in 0.1-0.25 M NaOH (pH≧9); divinyl sulfone isreacted at 20° C. for 1 hour while 1,2-diethanediol diglycidyl ether isused at 40° C. for 2-4 hours. These selections are based on thepreparation of HYLAFORM® and RESTYLANE® products (U.S. Pat. No.4,582,865 and U.S. Pat. No. 5,827,937, respectively); however, thepresent invention also includes an extension of this range as well. Theuse of very alkaline NaOH solutions also helps to sanitize the gels, anadded bonus for processing.

After the cross-linking reaction, the gel was washed repeatedly withwater and saline buffer to remove any excess reagents (NaOH,cross-linker) and then was subjected to chemophysical and biologicalanalysis. In the most widely employed embodiment of dermal fillers, aslurry or suspension of gel particles (created by sieving throughdefined mesh and/or sonic disruption) was injected.

Coating Synthesis Overview. Two steps were employed: first,plasma-activation of the surface and second, chemical reaction withheparosan. A variable duty cycle pulsed radio frequency (RF) plasmatechnique is used (42, 43). Using an algorithm, the optimum duty cycle(the plasma on and off pulse widths can be independently varied from0.01-100 millisec), coating time (e.g. 20 minutes to add 100 nmthickness coating), monomer mixture, and peak deposition rate for eachcoating and substrate are optimized. The film formation occurspredominately during the plasma off times via a free radical mechanism,as initiated by the reactive species produced during the very briefplasma on periods. Basically, the use of modulated frequency pulsesallows much higher levels of retention of monomer reactive groupfunctionalities, as well as widens the range of chemistries available,in the polymer films produced. Importantly, it is also possible to vary,in a highly controlled fashion, the surface density of the reactivegroups so introduced. The pulsed RF plasma method provides theflexibility to produce many types of coatings including those withantimicrobial, anti-thrombogenic, lubricious, and biocompatiblefeatures.

The initial surfaces are (a) silicone tubing (Silastic medical grade,Dow Corning) and (b) surgical steel coated with the reagent glycidalmethacrylate; under low duty cycle pulsed plasma conditions, thisreagent forms epoxide-containing surfaces for simple subsequentheparosan coupling reactions (as in Table III). Preliminary optimizationof the epoxide surface coating thickness (to form a water-stable layerwith good surface reactivity) has already been performed by AeonClad,but several thicknesses for use with heparosan will also be explored. Asmentioned earlier, HA, a close chemical proxy for heparosan, has beenimmobilized in a stable form to the initial samples of activated steeland silicone.

Other possible cross-linkers may also be used. For example, coatingsthat provide amino groups that will couple to the GAG's acid groups inthe presence of carbodiimide, if needed. Furthermore, with both theepoxide or the amine surfaces, spacer molecules can be readilyintroduced which will permit attachment of the heparson at variousdistances from the solid substrates.

The expoxide-based coated surfaces have been reacted with hydroxyls ofheparosan at high pH (in analogy to gel synthesis, FIG. 3 B). For thisprocedure, acidic conditions to couple to the surface-bound epoxides viathe carboxylate groups are also possible. The activated surface isflooded with the heparosan solution in the appropriate buffer (0.1-0.25M NaOH or 0.1 M Na phosphate, pH 2-5) for several hours at 22-40° C. Thesolution is then removed and the surface is washed thoroughly (water,saline, etc.) before testing. Unactivated surfaces (negative control) aswell as surfaces have lower signals in comparison.

Although the foregoing invention has been described in detail by way ofillustration and example for purposes of clarity of understanding, itwill be obvious to those skilled in the art that certain changes andmodifications may be practiced without departing from the spirit andscope thereof, as described in this specification and as defined in theappended claims below.

REFERENCES

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1-39. (canceled)
 40. A method for providing a coating on a surface of asynthetic implant, comprising the steps of: providing a syntheticimplant; providing a biomaterial composition, wherein the biomaterialcomposition comprises an isolated heparosan polymer, wherein theisolated heparosan polymer is biocompatible with a mammalian patient,and wherein the isolated heparosan polymer is represented by thestructure (-GlcUA-beta-1,4-GlcNAc-alpha-1,4-)_(n), wherein n is apositive integer greater than or equal to 1; disposing the biomaterialcomposition onto at least a portion of the surface of the syntheticimplant; and allowing the biomaterial composition to form a coating onthe surface of the implant.
 41. The method of claim 40 wherein, in thestep of providing a biomaterial composition, n is greater than
 10. 42.The method of claim 40 wherein, in the step of providing a biomaterialcomposition, n is about 1,000.
 43. The method of claim 40 wherein, inthe step of providing a biomaterial composition, the isolated heparosanpolymer is linear.
 44. The method of claim 40 wherein, in the step ofproviding a biomaterial composition, the isolated heparosan polymer iscrosslinked.
 45. The method of claim 40 wherein, in the step ofproviding a synthetic implant, at least a portion of the surface of thesynthetic implant is constructed of a material selected from the groupconsisting of silica, silicon, semiconductors, glass, polymers, organiccompounds, inorganic compounds, metals and combinations thereof.
 46. Themethod of claim 45, wherein at least a portion of the surface of thesynthetic implant is constructed of a metal selected from the groupconsisting of gold, copper, stainless steel, nickel, aluminum, titanium,thermosensitive alloys and combinations thereof.
 47. The method of claim40, wherein the coating on the surface of the synthetic implant issubstantially not susceptible to hyaluronidases and thereby is notsubstantially degraded in vivo.
 48. The method of claim 40 wherein, inthe step of providing a biomaterial composition, the biomaterialcomposition is recombinantly produced.
 49. A method of augmenting tissuein a patient, comprising the steps of: providing a biomaterialcomposition for administration to a mammalian patient, the biomaterialcomposition comprising an isolated heparosan polymer, wherein theisolated heparosan polymer is biocompatible with a mammalian patient,and wherein the isolated heparosan polymer is represented by thestructure (-GlcUA-beta-1,4-GlcNAc-alpha-1,4-)_(n), wherein n is apositive integer greater than or equal to 1; and administering aneffective amount of the biomaterial composition to a mammalian patient.50. The method of claim 49, wherein the biomaterial composition issubstantially not susceptible to hyaluronidases and thereby is notsubstantially degraded in vivo.
 51. The method of claim 49 wherein, inthe step of providing a biomaterial composition, the biomaterialcomposition is recombinantly produced.
 52. The method of claim 49,wherein the biomaterial composition is in a substantially liquid state.53. The method of claim 49 wherein, in the step of providing abiomaterial composition, the biomaterial composition is in a gel orsemi-solid or particulate state.
 54. The method of claim 49 wherein, inthe step of providing a biomaterial composition, the biomaterialcomposition further comprises a substrate, and wherein the isolatedheparosan polymer is attached to the substrate.
 55. The method of claim54, wherein the isolated heparosan polymer is covalently attached to thesubstrate.
 56. The method of claim 54, wherein the isolated heparosanpolymer is non-covalently attached to the substrate.
 57. The method ofclaim 54, wherein the substrate is selected from the group consisting ofsilica, silicon, semiconductors, glass, polymers, organic compounds,inorganic compounds, metals and combinations thereof.
 58. The method ofclaim 57, wherein at least a portion of the substrate is a metalselected from the group consisting of gold, copper, stainless steel,nickel, aluminum, titanium, thermosensitive alloys and combinationsthereof.
 59. A method of augmenting tissue in a patient, comprising thesteps of: providing a biomaterial composition for administration to amammalian patient, the biomaterial composition comprising an isolatedheparosan polymer, wherein the isolated heparosan polymer isbiocompatible with a mammalian patient, and wherein the isolatedheparosan polymer is represented by the structure(-GlcUA-beta-1,4-GlcNAc-alpha-1,4-)_(n), wherein n is a positive integergreater than or equal to 1; and injecting an effective amount of thebiomaterial composition into a mammalian patient.
 60. The method ofclaim 59, wherein the biomaterial composition is in a substantiallyliquid state.
 61. The method of claim 59, wherein the biomaterialcomposition is not substantially susceptible to hyaluronidases andthereby is not substantially degraded in vivo.
 62. The method of claim59 wherein, in the step of providing a biomaterial composition, thebiomaterial composition is recombinantly produced.
 63. A method ofaugmenting tissue in a patient, comprising the steps of: providing abiomaterial composition for administration to a mammalian patient, thebiomaterial composition comprising an isolated heparosan polymer,wherein the isolated heparosan polymer is biocompatible with a mammalianpatient, and wherein the isolated heparosan polymer is represented bythe structure (-GlcUA-beta-1,4-GlcNAc-alpha-1,4-)_(n), wherein n is apositive integer greater than or equal to 1; and implanting an effectiveamount of the biomaterial composition into a mammalian patient.
 64. Themethod of claim 63, wherein the biomaterial composition is notsubstantially susceptible to hyaluronidases and thereby is notsubstantially degraded in vivo.
 65. The method of claim 63 wherein, inthe step of providing a biomaterial composition, the biomaterialcomposition is recombinantly produced.
 66. The method of claim 63wherein, in the step of providing a biomaterial composition, thebiomaterial composition is in a gel or semi-solid or particulate state.67. The method of claim 63 wherein, in the step of providing abiomaterial composition, the biomaterial composition further comprises asubstrate, and wherein the isolated heparosan polymer is attached to thesubstrate.
 68. The method of claim 67, wherein the isolated heparosanpolymer is covalently attached to the substrate.
 69. The method of claim67, wherein the isolated heparosan polymer is non-covalently attached tothe substrate.
 70. The method of claim 67, wherein the substrate isselected from the group consisting of silica, silicon, semiconductors,glass, polymers, organic compounds, inorganic compounds, metals andcombinations thereof.
 71. The method of claim 70, wherein at least aportion of the substrate is a metal selected from the group consistingof gold, copper, stainless steel, nickel, aluminum, titanium,thermosensitive alloys and combinations thereof.
 72. A method,comprising the steps of: providing a biomaterial composition foradministration to a mammalian patient, the biomaterial compositioncomprising an isolated heparosan polymer, wherein the isolated heparosanpolymer is biocompatible with a mammalian patient, and wherein theisolated heparosan polymer is represented by the structure(-GlcUA-beta-1,4-GlcNAc-alpha-1,4-)_(n), wherein n is a positive integergreater than or equal to 1; and administering an effective amount of thebiomaterial composition to a mammalian patient.